Criticism
Greek Criticism
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. Greek criticism is the body of critical works written in ancient Greece
It is regarded as the first phase of literary criticism and forms the
background to all subsequent التابع criticism. This phase covers the fifth
and fourth centuries B. C. In these centuries, Athens was the center of
literary and critical activity. Plato and Aristotle are the most outstanding Greek critics.
Plato
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Plato is the first literary critic who has put his ideas in a systematic way in his dialogues .
Plato was born of a distinguished Athenian family , He was one of socrates followers , He founded
a school of philosophy which was later called the Academy , Plato's views on art and literature
are expressed in his Ion , Phaedrus and Republic .
Plato lays down two important theories of poetry : the theory of "inspiration" and the theory of
"imitation"
:The Theory of Inspiration
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In his earlier works , Plato claims that the poet is a possessed creature .
He does not use language in the way that normal human beings do ,
But he speaks in a divinely inspired frenzy .
He maintains that the poet is possessed by the Muses . in His Phaedrus , he writes :
the third kind is the madness of those who are possessed by the Muses ; which taking hold of
delicate and virgin soul , and there inspiring frenzy . awakens lyrical and all other
numbers ; with these adorning the myriad actions of ancient heroes for
the instruction of posterity . But he who , having no touch of the Muse's madness in his
soul , comes to the door and thinks that he will get into the temple , by the help of
art , he , I say and his poetry are not admitted ; the same man is nowhere at all
when he entres into rivalry with the madman
Plato's view of inspiration is expressed at length بشكل مطول in his Ion where Socrates
speaks to Ion , a rhapsodist or a singer who recites and embellishes يزخرف -يجمل the works
of the great poets such as Homer :
For the poet is a light and winged and holy thing, and there is no invention in him until
he has been inspired and is out of his senses , and the mind is no longer in him : when he has
not attained to this state, he is powerless and is unable to utter his oracles.
Many are the noble words in which poets speak concerning the actions of men ; but like yourself
when speaking about Homer, they do not speak of them by any rules of art : they are simply
inspired to utter that to which the Muse impels them, and that only; and when inspired, one
of them will make dithyrambs , another hymns of praise, another choral strains, another epic
or iambic verses.
Consequently, poetry is not a craft that can be learned or practiced ; but it
is the result of inspiration , the divine speaks through the poet .
In this way the poets themselves do not often understand what they write at the moment of inspiration.
:The theory of imitation
Plato is an idealist . He believes that ideas alone are true and real and the earthly things ــــ Beauty , goodness , justice ـــ are
mere types or copies of the ideal beauty , goodness , etc .
Which exist in heaven . He regards imitation as mere mimesis or representation of these ideal form .
In his Republic , Book X , he argues that if true reality consists of the ideas of things , of which individual
objects are , then anyone who then any one who imitate those indvidual objects is imitating an imitation , and so
producing something which is still further removed from ultimate reality .
The artist , according to Plato , deals with the world which we perceive with our eyes and ears .
This world is a mere copy of the real world which is apprehended by the mind . Consequently , it is the appearance which
the artist imitates not the reality .
Plato develops his argument with reference to the painter . First , the carpenter makes a bed or a table which is no more than
the imitation of the real bed or the ideal bed in the mind of the carpenter . Now the painter who paints this bed gives us a copy
of or an imitation of the bed made by the carpenter . Thus , he gives us a copy of a copy or an imitation of imitations like the
painter , the poet creats a copy of a copy . Consequently , the poet's subjects and methods are false. He does not appeal to reason
but to emotions.
He excites, feeds and strengthens the most worthless part of the soul. In his Republic, Book X, plato writes:
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And now we may fairly take him and place him (thepoet ) by the side of the painter, for he is like him in two ways:
first, inasmuch as بسبب ان his creations have an inferior أدنى degree of truth --in this, I say, he is like him ;and he is also like
him in being concerned with an inferior part of soul; and therefore we shall be right in refusing to admit him Into
a well - ordered منظمة State, because he awakens and nourishes and strengthens the feelings and impairs the reason.
As in a city when the evil are permitted to have authority and the good are put out of the way, so in the soul of
man, as we maintain, the imitative poet implants an evil constitution, for he indulges the irrational nature which has
no discernment of greater and less, but thinks the same thing at one time great and at another small-he is a manufacturer
of images and is very far removed from the truth.
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As a result , Plato condemns poetry and banishes poets from his Republic . He maintains that if poetry is permitted at
all , it must be confined of hymns to god and verses in praise of noble men
In other words , Plato admits only poetry which leads to the instruction and well-being of the ideal citizen
Aristotle
_________Aristotle is the second great Greek critic . His poetics is regarded as an important landmark in the history of literary criticism .
Arstotle attempts to defend poetry against the attacks of his master plato
Aristotle defends poetry by claiming that it is not concerned with What is but rather with what ought to be .
In other words , poetry gives us an idealize version of reality he also discusses the healthy influence of poetry in
general and tragedy in particular in his theory of "Katharsis"
"Parts of Tragedy according to Aristotle"
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in his poetics Aristotle also discusses the parts of the tragedy: Plot , character , diction ( Language or style )
thought (themes) , Spectacle (stage) and song (chorus)
.The tragic plot
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Tragedy , for Aristotle , is "an imitation of an action that is serious complete, and of certain
magnitude لها حجم - مدى ; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate
parts of the play ;in the form of action, not of narrative ; Aristotle contends that the tragic plot that the must be " complete " He
means plot must have a beginning, a middle , and an end. In addition, the plot must have a "certain " magnitude ."
In other words, it must have certain size or length to allow the process .of change from happiness to misery
He also points out that the plot of a tragedy must have an organic unity.
In other words, the tragedy must have only one action. There may be a number of incidents and events, but together
they must constitute one and only one action. Aristotle is against plurality since it weakens the final effect of tragedy.
The plot , according to Aristotle , must consist of an action which is possible , the poet does not represent what actually happened
but what may happen . This is because poetry , for Aristotle , is not a mere imitation of nature
Aristotle points out that Tragedy is an imitation of a "Serious action" and that its purpose is to arouse pity and fear .
The plot of a Tragedy must consist of serious incidents since , for Aristotle , Tragedy is essentially a play which deals with great
moral issues , and matters of utmost importance to human life . Furthermore, the incidents comprising the plot should arouse the feelings
of pity and fear . This indicates that Tragedy is a tale of suffering with an unhappy ending.Thus a tragic plot must depict the hero passing
from happiness to misery and not rising from misery to happiness , Consequently , a proper plot is likely to arouse pity and fear ;
As regards the dramatic unities , the unity of action , the unity of time and the unity of place , Aristotle as formerly illustrated is
against plurality of action . He asserts that the plot must have an organic unity . Namely , it must have only one action . Aristotle speaks
in brief about the other two unities , the unity of time and the unity of place . About the unity of time , he merely says that tragedy
should confine itself to single revolution of the sun .
Concerning the unity of place , it is only mentioned when Aristotle compares the epic and the Tragedy , the Epic , he maintains , can
narrate a number of actions going on simultaneously in different places whereas in a drama simultaneous actions cannot be
.represented, for the stage is one place and not several places
:Characterization
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In chapter XV, Aristotle mention four essentials of successful characterization
:Goodness
_____________The character must be good. In Ancient Greece, women were regarded as inferior beings and slaves as worthless. But Aristotle says
that, when introduced in tragedy, even women and slaves must be shown to have some good in them. Entirely wicked characters, even when
assigned minor roles, are unfit for a tragedy. Wickedness may be introduced only when required by the necessities of the plot.
However, when introduced, wicked characters must be good in some respects.
:Appropriateness
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The characters must be appropriate . In other words , they must be true to "Type" or "Status" . For example , a woman must be shown
as womanly and not manly . If characters are taken from some known myth or story , say the story of King Oedipus , they must be true
to tradition. They must behave as king Oedipus is traditionally supposed to have behaved ;
:Likeness
______________The third essential of successful charactrization is characters must have "likeness" this means that they must be like ourselves or
true to life . In other words , they must have virtues weaknesses , joy and sorrow , love and hatred of average humanity , this is
because we can feel pity and fear only for one who is like ourselves .
:Consistency
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Fourthly , the characters must be consistent . In other words , they must be the same throughout . There should be no sudden changes
in character ;
The ideal Tragic hero
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The function of a tragedy , for Aristotle , is to arouse the emotions of pity and fear , He deduces the qualities of the tragic
hero from this function . He should be good but not too good or perfect , for the fall of a perfectly good man from happiness into
misery would be odious and repellent , His fall will not arouse pity , for he is not like us and his undeserved fall will only shock
and disgust us , similarly , the spectacle of an utterly wicked person passing from happiness to misery may satisfy our moral
sense , but is lacking in the proper tragic qualities since it excites neither pity nor fear .
Consequently the tragic hero should be neither perfect or villain Aristotle points out that the ideal tragedy hero "must be an
intermediate وسط kind of person a man not pre-eminently طريقة واضحة virtuous and just, whose misfortune, however, is brought upon him
not by vice رزيلة or depravity فساد but by some error of judgment " The ideal tragedy hero is a man who stands midway between the two
extremes النقيضين .He is not eminently good or just, though he melines to يميل الى the side of goodness.
His misfortune is brought upon him by some fault of his own. The Greek word used here is " hamartia" .
The Theory Of Katharsis
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In his Poetics, Aristotle mentions that the function of tragedy is to arouse the emotions of pity and fear and in this way to
affect the "Katharsis" of these emotions. "Katharsis" is a Greek word meaning purgation purification, and clarification. Aristotle's
theory of "Katharsis" is meant to be a defense against Plato's notion مفهوم that art corrupts by nourishing تغذية passions.
Aristotle's defence against this charge is simple and remarkable . He asserts that art gives them harmless or even useful purgation .
By exciting pity and fear in us , tragedy enables us to leave the theatre in calm of mind and all passion spent .
It seems clear that Aristotle was claiming some kind of therapeutic value of Tragedy . Freud and other psychologists support this view.
. Graeco-Roman Criticism
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By the close of the third century B.C Athenian culture suffered decline and period of decadence began . Athens was no longer the
center of literary activity in the Ancient world , New centres of art and culture sprang up , the most prominent of which was Alexandria
in Egypt . However , an original critical work was done during this period .
This period of decadence was soon followed by brilliant Graeco-Roman phase , Around the first century B.C the centre of literary
and cultural activity shifted from Alexandria to Rome , the capital of the Roman Empire. Graeco Roman criticism began at the end
of the first century B.C Horace and Longinus are the most outstanding critics of Graeco-Roman criticism .
:Horace
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With Horace, a fresh beginning in literary criticism was made. His most significant critical work is Ars Poetica or The Art of
Poetry, a work which equaled Aristotle's Poetics in its influence during the Renaissance. The definite date of Ars poetica is unkown
The title Ars Poetica means a treatise on the art of writing poetry .
Horace wrote as a verse epistle to his young friend Pisos. In this work, he lays down rules for the guidance of writers. Horace advocates
an imitation of the ancient Greek masters.
However, he encourages a process of re-creation, the evolution of something new out of the old. His remarks on drama are valuable.
His treatment of plot and characterization is significant.
:The Divisions Of Ars poetica
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Apparently, Ars poetica seems formless and unsystematic, but it has a definite and well -marked scheme of treatment.
The subject matter obviously falls into three well marked divisions. First, there is "poesis " or the discussion of the subject matter
of poetry. Second, there is "Poema" or form it is the most thoroughly handled of the three divisions , and drama as a form of
poetry is treated at length .
The third part is "Poeta" or the poet , and in this part Horace gives advice to the poet regarding his art and also examines
the functions of poetry .
:Critical Synopsis of Ars Poetica
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In Part I of Ars Poetica , Horace stresses the need of organic unity and propriety in a poem . All parts must be vitally connected
with one another .
In part II , "Poema" . Horace discussed the "kinds" of poetry . He takes drama as a concrete example of a poetic kind and examines
in detail plot charactrization and style . The whole discussion is reminiscent of Aristotle.
.Renaissance Criticism
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After the collapse of the Roman Empire and thus the end of the Graeco. Roman phase, the Medieval phase or the Dark Middle Ages
followed. During these age the great literary works of the ancients were completely neglected.
The Medieval phase lasted until the fourteenth century when the Renaissance began. The Renaissance is marked by the revival of
the great works of the ancient Greeks and Romans. During the Renaissance, critics attempted to justify imaginative literature
against the attacks of the Puritans.
The best is Sir Philip Sidney's "An Apology for poetry. " Ben Jonson is another great critic of this period.
:-Sir Philip Sidney
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Sir Philip Sidney is a Renaissance poet and critic. His work "Apology for poetry" is regarded as the most outstanding work of
Renaissance literary criticism. Sidney wrote his apology as a reply to the puritans'attack against poetry. The greatest of the
puritans'attacks is represented by Stephen Gasson's " The School of Abuse " in which he launches a severe attack against poetry.
In "The School of Abuse" Gasson classifies poets with "pipers and jesters" and calls them "caterpillars of the common wealth , and
enemies of virtues" He maintains that music is debilitating and it undermines virtue . He remarks that Plato banished poets from his
ideal commonwealth since they exercise a demoralizing influence on people . "The School of Abuse" was dedicated to sir Philip Sidney .
Sidney wrote his "Apology for poetry" to meet the fierce attack of Gasson . Nevertheless , the greatness of the treatise resides in the
fact that it explains to the age of the renaissance what poetry really is . it sheds valuable light on the nature and function of poetry .
The poet's task though called "imitation" is not to represent this world as it is seen by our imperfect eyes but to "figure forth" a "nature"
of a higher order , recreating in his mind the world , as he imagines , is created by god .
Sidney's Apology is divided into five sections . The first section dealt with the conventional reasons for attaching special value to poetry .
the second section is an exposition of the nature and usefulness of poetry . The third section is a discussion of the current charges
against poetry . The fourth section is devoted to some remarks on the state of contemporary English poetry .
The fifth section deals with style , diction , and versification .
:Antiquity and universality of poetry
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In the first section of his apology . Sidney points out that poetry should be regarded as an honourable art because of its
antiquity and unversality .
in all nations, poetry preceded other branches of knowledge. It was poetry which enabled man to read and understand learning
of some branches of knowledge. Poets are "the fathers of learning, " and therefore they must be respected for poets.
Earlier philosophers and historians wrote their works in poetry. Plato himself was a poet. He wrote his
poetical dialogues to teach his philosophy.
Concerning the universality of poetry. Sidney maintains that poetry flourished in all ages and countries. People loved poetry
which softened there hearts and sharpened their wits. To attack poetry, thus, is not justified.
Sidney remarks that poets were highly respected in ancient times. The Roman had great respect for poetry and poets.
They called the poets "vates" which means "a diviner, a foreseer or a prophet. " The Greeks also greatly appreciated poets
and honored them. In Greek the word "poet " means "maker" or " creator ." The poet, for the Greek, is a maker because he does
not give us a copy of nature but he gives us something better that we find in nature.
The Nature of Poetry
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In the second section of his "Apology for poetry ." Sidney argues that in dealing with nature the poet is superior to the
representatives of other branshes of knowledge such as the astronomer, the physician, the historian and the philosopher who
deal solely with the works of nature and affairs of men as they are. They give us only what they find in nature , however , the
poet makes things either better than those we find in nature or attempts an entierly new creation.
Only the poet , disdaining to be tied to any such subject , lifted up with the vigour of his own invention , does grow
in effect another nature ,In making things either better than nature brings forth ,or quite new forms such as never were in nature.
Sidney stresses the fact that the world which the poet invents or creates is better than the real world. This better world is created
by the poet's imagination. If the real world "is brazen, the poets only deliver a golden "in his poetry ,the poet gives us
true lovers ,faithful friends and great heroes whom we cannot find in nature.
:* Sidney defines poetry as follows :
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Poetry therefore is an art of imitation, for so Aristotle terms it in his word mimesis, that is to say ,a representing, counterfeiting
or figuring forth :to speak metaphorically ,a speaking picture :with this end,to teach and delight.
Thus, according to Sidney, poetry is an imitation of nature, and its function is to teach and delight.
Thus, according to Sidney, poetry is an imitation of nature, and its function is to teach and delight.
Sidney divided poetry into three broad divisions-religious poetry philosophical or informative poetry, and
the right or true kind of poetry.
Religious poetry prasis. God and so it is harmless. Philosophical of informative poetry gives us knowledge
of philosophy, history, astronomy, etc. It is "the sweet food of sweety uttered knowledge."
The right or true kind of poetry may be sub-divided into pastoral, elegiac, comic, tragic, lyric, epic, etc.
Pastoral poetry deals with the lowliest life and thus arouses sympathy and admiration for simple life. Elegiac poetry
arouses sympathy for the suffering and the miserable. It softens the hearts.
Comedy is an imitation of common errors in a ridiculous fashion. Tragedy "opens the greatest wounds and shows forth the
ulcers that are covered with tissue, that makes kings fear to be tyrant. " This results in their downfall and thus tragedy
arouses hatred for tyranny. Lyric hymns the praise of God and thus enkindles virtue and courage. Sidney regards epic poetry
as " the best and most accomplished kind of poetry. " It presents pictures of heroic men and heroic action, and
thus inspires men to heroic action .
Neo Classical Criticism
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1-It emphasizes the importance of reason of the intellectual element.
2-It stresses the rules of ancient masters such as Aristotle and Horace.
3-It is interested in style and poetic diction(highly elevated language).
4-It restricted imagination.
5-The function of poetry is to give us instructions.
6-It embraces nature.
7-It is concerned with (order,decorum,proportion,correctness, sound reason, common sense,etc......)
Neo classical criticism
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After the immense development of English criticism during the Renaissance ,which produced the great critics sir
philip sidney and Ben Jonson ,criticism in England underwent a period of degeneration . This was due to the fact
that people's energy was dissipated by political and religious conflicts that culminated in the civil war and the
execution of the English king ,Charles I . The restoration of monarchy with king Charles II in 1660 resulted in
a state of social stability and once again the climate was favourable for a productive period in the field of literary
criticism . The Italian influence which dominated England during the Renaissance was replaced by the French influence.
Neo-classicism actually began in France. The eminent French critic of Neo-classicism is Boileau.
He extremely influenced the English
Neo_ classical critic Alexandre pope.Boileau stresses the significance of reason.
He recommends that the poet should write according to rules of reason. In "The Art of Poetry " , he writes :
Whatev'er you write of pleasant or sublime,
Always let sense accompany your rime,
Boileau greatly admired the ancient Greek and Roman writers and advised poets to follow their rules and imitate their
way of writing. He emphasized that the poet should always keep decorum and propriety which could be attained through
following the ancient classical writers.
In England, Neo_ classicism is applied to the restoration period (1660-1700) and the first eight years of the eighteenth
century or as they are called the Augustan age.
Characteristics of Neo classicism:
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Neo classicism means the revival of the classical rules and principles of the Greek and Roman masters such as Aristotle
and Horace. It is characterized by adherence to Nature.
Neo_ classicism is also characterized by a strong emphasis on "correctness" "good sense," "sound reason " " decorum, " and "order ,"
One more characteristic of Neo_ classicism is that it stresses the significance of style and poetic diction .
The language of poetry . For Neo _classial critics ,should be distinguished by poetic diction which is a particular
and elevated kind of language.
: The stages of English Neo_ classicism
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English Neo_ classicism (1660_1780) may be divided into three stages .
The first stage covers the Restoration age (1660_1700) where Neo _ classicism tends to be moderate and liberal.
The eminent critic of this period is John Dry den.
The second stage of English Neo_ classicism covers the first four decades of the eighteenth century which witnessed
the peak of Neo _classicism . Alexander pope is the outstanding critic of this period.
The third is the last four decades of Neo _ classicism .During this stage, Neo _ classicism gradually began to lose
its strength .The major critic of this stage is Dr . Samuel Johnson
John Dryden began his career as a playwright then as a poet and a number of official recognition .
As a critic,Dryden wrote numerous prefaces and essays. Many critics agree that he is the father of English criticism.
His "Essay of Dramatic poesy" is regarded as his most remarkable work in criticism .
The essay is in the from of a dialogue among four character :crites,Eugenius , lisideius and Neander ( Dryden him self ) .
Dryden has chosen four witty gentlemen to be involved in a literary discussion. Crites defends the Ancients , Eugenius defends
The Moderns; lisideius defends French drama, Neander defends English drama.
Samuel Johnson
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Samuel Johnson or Dr . Johnson (1709-1784)is an English poet ,critic and journalist. He is regarded as one of the eminent
figures of the eighteenth century.
He went to Oxford for two years but he could not get his degree because of financial problems. However, many years later when
he became famous, Oxford awarded him the honorary doctorate degree which become part of his name; he is still known as Dr . Johnson.
As a critic,Dr .Johnson, William K.wimsatt and cleanth Brooks maintain ,is "the great cham of 18th -century English literary
criticism " He is a liberal neo_classical critic. He never follows rules rigidly
.Dr Johnson is well known for his "Perface to Shakespeare " (1765) and The lives of poets (1779) .these two works testify
to his great ability as a brilliant practical critic.
In "preface to Shakespeare" , Dr . Johnson contends that Shakespeare
is great .He "kept the favor of his countrymen "The greatness of Shakespeare is due to his " Just presentation of general nature.
"By nature ,Dr . Johnson means human nature. He maintains that "Shakespeare is above all writers, at least above all modern
writers, the poet of nature.; the poet that holds up to his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life."
Shakespeare
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That praises are without reason lavished on the dead,and that the honours due only to excellence
are paid to antiquity, is a complaint likely to be always continued by those ,who,beging able to add nothing to truth .
Antiquity, like every other quality that attracts the notice of mankind, has undoubtedly votaries that reverence
it, not from reason ,but from prejudice.
All perhaps are more willing to honour past than present excellence
The great contention of criticism is to find the fault of the moderns ,and the beauties of the ancients .
While an author is yet living we estimate his powers by his worst performance, and when he is dead ,we rate them by his best.
Nothing can please many ,and please long ,but just representation of general nature.
Shakespeare is above all writers,at least above all modern writers ,the poet of nature;the poet that holds up
to his readers a faithful mirrour of manners and of life.
Shakespeare has no heroes; his scenes are occupied only by
men , who act and speak as the reader thinks that he should
himself have spoken or acted on the same occasion .
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Written by: Ahmed Mahmoud
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